The materials and the workmanship for the present day oil well requirements have changed greatly from those 20 to 30 years ago. Both the materials and the workmanship have been improved to meet the requirements presented to us in deep well pumping.

A number of major oil companies have begun -field tests of the lightweight, non-corrosive fiberglass sucker rods, The tests were generally made using steel sucker rods in a well for a specific time period and replacing the steel rod string with one designed with fiberglass rods. Specific detailed records were kept on these "before and after" studies by most companies. Other companies employed an independent testing firm to provide test results, This paper will compare steel sucker rods with two brands of fiberglass sucker rods manufactured by Company A and Company B. The wells in this study are divided into groups of similar depths with comparable fluid levels, pumping units and bottom-hole pumps. Four standards were developed to compare and evaluate sucker rod performance. 1. Equipment loading 2. Energy consumption 3. Fluid production 4. Failure frequency Each of these four standards was studied in depth in similar wells to compare each group of sucker rods.

The practice of lifting fluid from subsurface levels with gas pressure is not new; it has been in use for many years and is now recognized as a major method of artificial lift in petroleum production. Until recent years a detailed study of gas lift operating principles was relatively unimportant because of the low value of natural gas. With increasing gas value a study of the principles became imperative. This study has led to much advancement in development of the practice, principles and equipment.

The application of correct methods for determining the effect of pressure and temperature on the behavior of natural gas is essential in projects involving gas measurement. The gas compressibility factor may be neglected in gas calculations only at low pressures and high temperatures. This paper presents the basic equations, with example solutions, for determining the gas compressibility factor, the volumes occupied by a gas at different pressures and temperatures, and the flow of gas through pipelines as measured with an orifice meter.

Since the beginning of oil production, salt water handling has presented problems. However, recent years have brought about significant changes in attitudes and approaches to gathering, pumping and injecting large volumes of salt water. Political implication, landowner relations. And regulatory decrees have demanded increased controls on salt water disposal. The lack of, or inhibited use of, fresh water have forced greater dependence on salt water sources for waterflood. In combination, these factors have created new concepts. Water handling is no longer regarded as a side-line necessity. It is often a controlling factor in profitable oil producing operations. Efforts are constantly being directed to finding better and cheaper ways to handle large salt water volumes. New technology has joined old experiences in overcoming serious problems. This paper reviews some of the primary problems and presents methods of approach toward their solution. Caution and danger conditions are discussed. Symptom signals and control measures are described. Emphasis is placed on the systematic acquisition of appropriate data. A simplified chemical material balance concept, utilizing standardized data presentation techniques, is suggested as a way for the production engineer to derive a quantitative expression of "water quality".

Recent improvements in the Borehole Televiewer logging field have enabled oil operators to determine the presence of natural fractures and their orientations in the Spraberry and Dean Formations. Running modern open hole logs over the Spraberry and Dean zones is rarely done when these zones are the primary target zone of a well. However, the need for determining the natural fracture direction is important to the oil operator so he can optimize his offset locations with respect to the trend of the natural fracture system. Defining the trend of the fracture system is particularly important since many Spraberry/Dean wells are drilled on 40 acre spacing and are candidates for waterflood projects in many areas. The following examples document the utility of the Borehole Televiewer in both evaluating the subject formations for hydrocarbon production and optimizing the hydraulic fracture stimulation design for achieving maximum oil production.

The presence of natural fractures in hydraulic fracturing candidates can present an array of well completion
problems. Natural fractures can be very difficult if not impossible to model without adequate pre-job diagnostic
testing to calibrate simulation. Left undetected natural fractures can cause premature screen-out as well as gel damage. In tight gas sand formations, natural fractures can be the predominate production mechanism in the reservoir. If polymer residue is left in the natural fractures after drilling, stimulation or work-over, a substantial amount of potential production may be left behind. Often this type of damage may be documented by the sheer fact that production may decrease after these types of operations.mTechniques have been perfected to determine the impact on leakoff due to natural fractures. In many cases production may exceed the predictive capability of production simulators without the introduction of permeability numbers that might be considered high for that area. This could lead one to believe that some portion of the production is dominated by natural fractures. A better understanding this type of leakoff could help in the development of methods to predict production results or economics of a well based on pre-job testing. It is the intention of this paper to discuss methodology to predict the presence of natural fractures and show key considerations when trying to simulate their behavior. This paper will also investigate damage mechanisms and describe methods that may be used to help minimize their impact.

This paper deals with the various kinds of taxes, other than income, which affect the oil industry. The material is directed to first level supervisors and engineers who are concerned with taxation problems in the industry.

A true gas lock is really just a pocket of gas trapped between the standing valve and the traveling valve. It has enough pressure when the pump is extended (on the upstroke) to keep the standing valve from opening and admitting new fluid. But does not compress tightly enough when the pump is closed (on the downstroke) to lift the traveling valve off its seat. Since coming to the oilfield in 1975 I have seen, and dealt with a great number of sucker rod pumps that appeared to be gas-locked. I have also inspected, and listened to the sales pitch for, many devices that the inventors claim will solve this problem once and for all. I have had the opportunity to evaluate several of these "gadgets" in the field and found them wanting. Most often the devices fail prematurely, and several had no discernible effect. The claims for others bordered on the absurd. Yet, these devices persist and I have seen at least three inventors and or salesmen in the last six months. At least two of the ideas have merit, although not necessarily for the reasons that the inventors' claim. As a well technician for Texaco I have been involved in the company

Supervisor is a vital function in the modern organization. It is the link between decision and action and both are ineffective without it. Therefore, the supervisor is the "man in the middle" with responsibilities to the management and to his men. His position and authority in the organization should be carefully defined and his duties, responsibilities and rights clearly understood. What is a supervisor and what should he do?

Extensive Jet Pump field operating experience has shown that the Jet Pump is a viable method of deep well pumping. Properly applying this pump to a given well installation involves 14 factors relating to the well and its production characteristics, and involves determining the optimum pump nozzle and throat size required to do the most effective job. Since many of the production characteristics of a well are interdependent, many reiterative calculations are required to determine the proper nozzle and throat size for each producing condition. The computer is the only practical method for using the producing conditions to make the many calculations that are required to generate an accurate and easily understood Jet Pump Operating Chart. This paper shows the factors involved and their effect upon Jet Pump operation.

Printed technical references to jet pumps can be traced as far back as 1852 England. However, consistent mathematical formulas were not published until 1933, when J. E. Gosline and M. P. O"Brien of the University of California at Berkley published The Water Jet Pump. In the same time period, the Jacuzzi Company received a patent for a jet pumping system that was successfully used to lift shallow water wells. Over the years, jet pumps have also been used as vacuum sources in applications such as steam ejectors on large, condensing steam turbines or on a wide variety of process industry vacuum requirements. Low to moderate lift water wells, and process and steam ejectors remain today as common industrial applications of jet pump technology. These applications, however, use liquid as a power source to move liquid, or gas as a power source to move gas. The initial problem in applying jet pumps to lift oil wells was based on the fact that a typical oil well contains a mixture of oil, water, and gas. The mathematical formulas of the 1930's did not produce accurate results in predicting pump performance and, consequently, required considerable modification. Also, jet pump performance calculations require a cycle of a number of repeat calculations, each one "zeroing in," as it were, more closely on the desired result. Making these calculations manually is very time consuming. It was not until the widespread availability of computers and the ability to properly program calculations of this type that the proper application of jet pump lift to oil wells became a practical reality. The first really successful applications were put in service in 1970. The use of this method of artificial lift has grown quite steadily since then. It is not the intent of this paper to discuss in detail the theory of operation or the calculation methods employed to accurately predict jet pump performance. It is suggested that those interested in a detailed presentation of those topics refer to the 1987 edition of The Petroleum Engineering Handbook, published by the Society of Petroleum Engineers. Chapter 6 of this publication, authored by Hal Petrie of National-Oilwell, contains a wealth of excellent information on hydraulic pumping, including both jet and reciprocating pumps. However, in order to discuss the versatility of jet pumping oil wells, a basic discussion of the Hydraulic Lift System and the jet pump's design characteristics is in order, since these are the basis of the jet pump's versatility.

This paper discusses the new, patented Penetrator Tool System which utilizes the principle of high pressure jet cutting to produce clean tunnels up to 10 ft. into formation rocks. Both the downhole system and the surface pumping equipment are described. The theory of jet cutting of rocks is discussed and some empirical data are provided on penetrating hydrocarbon reservoir rocks. The effects of by-passing near wellbore formation damage and providing short, unobstructed drainage channels from the reservoir are reviewed. Various applications of the Penetrator System in new well completions, recompletions, and workovers of older wells are outlined and case histories are presented illustrating where production or injection enhancement has been achieved.

The proper and economical operation of pumping wells is highly desirable, for the basic objective of any oil producing company is to recover the maximum amount of oil at a minimum cost. In these days of high taxes and low profits, it I mandatory that the efficient producing of pumping wells be maintained. This is growing in importance since a constantly increasing number of wells are being put on the pump. A formula for arriving at the cost of lifting oil will vary with the producer. However, of primary consideration is the cost of operations per day and included in this cost must be pulling and pump repair costs. More and more producers are recognizing that greater attention should be paid to pumping wells, but all complain of the lack of trained personnel or lack of time. Much discussion has been going on about the possible development of a simple instrument for checking the bottom hole pump before it is withdrawn from the well, but little action has been taken. Since operation and maintenance of equipment on pumping wells has always been considered the function of the field man, the instrument should be one that will lend itself to use by the field man. Therefore, it must be low in cost and easily understood so it can be properly utilized. A new instrument has been developed which has been designated as a polished rod Load indicator. The name is appropriate since it does indicate the changing loads on the polished rod as the well pumps.

The history of the successful long stroke hydraulic pumping unit is, when compared to the oil industry, a relatively short one. Attempts to build an hydraulic pumping unit were made as early as 1932 but without too much success. In 1939, two of the present day long stroke hydraulic pumping units were first brought out on the market to be offered to the oil industry. Since 1945 two more manufacturers of long stroke hydraulic pumping units have presented their equipment to the oil fields.

The problem of finding, refining, transporting and producing oil are each one in themselves a separate phase of the oil industry. Today in this discussion, we are interested in but one of these phases, that of producing oil. Our subject has been further narrowed to the discussion of the advantages of the long stroking, sub-surface hydraulic pumping.

Over the past few years, the oil industry has taken a very active interest in the use of CO2 for enhanced oil recovery.
have been started. Many CO2 injection projects Other fields are being studied for CO2 flooding with future projects being planned. On the other side of the picture, making all this possible, has been the finding and developing of large sources of CO?. Most of the CO2 has been found in naturally occurring underground reservoirs which are capable of producing the quantities needed for oil field application. Although the CO2 sources are often hundreds of miles from the prospective oil fields, major pipelines have already been constructed and others are being planned to transport the CO2 to places where it will be applied. This paper presents an overview of these major sources of CO2 and the
current status of their development.

It is difficult to completely describe this dehydration system in one sentence. The variables effecting the design are many and must be given full consideration. To start outlining the criteria probably the first concern in the design is the volume of gas to be processed. This leads into the pressure and temperature. The governing control of the design is the sales specification for the maximum water content. In this simplistic form the unit can be sized and applied to the job. However, there are other questions that should be considered. What is the life of the production? Will compressors come into use later. The above design concerns need individual review as they affect the total system.

Presents the revision of API Standard 11-B on sucker rod joint design, the reasons for this change, and the expected performance of this new joint when properly used.

The U.S. society of today bears only a slight resemblance to our society of a decade ago. In our quest of efficiency and new scientific servants for mankind, technology has leaped forward at a dizzying pace. The median age of our society had dropped drastically, bringing youthful perceptions and new concern for basic values. Increased numbers of people have spawned more companies and bigger companies marketing more lines of products and services to more complex sets of markets. This revolution of technology, thought and numbers have had a major impact upon corporations, giving rise to new concepts in management organization. Old concepts of functional organization are being phased out, particularly in the large multi-divisional corporations. Authority has shifted in the management hierarchy, new lines of communications established and new concern has emerged about the individual employee.

Fights at the water hole were a part of the recorded history of settlement in the west. Windmills, well drilling machinery, and other innovative technology helped make water available at the point of need. Surface water limitations were rapidly forgotten as the arid areas enjoyed the magic and widespread abundance of underground water. Forty years of increasing demand coupled with serious depletion of the reserves again presents substantial opportunity for conflict and competition among classes of users. The "economics of the market" do not offer acceptable solution under the "rule of resource capture" and a more appropriate legal framework will ultimately evolve. Hopefully, such governmental intervention will not destroy the utility of competitive business practices.

The end of WWII marked the entrance into a new era in domestic oil production. Full capacity production gave way to curtailment and pro-ration. The necessity for drastic economies resulted in close scrutiny of all costs and practices. The Gas Engine which has long been the "work horse" in the oilfields began to feel the inroads of electrification. Wider availability of electric power and the obvious ease of automating electric motors were compelling reasons that led to wholesale electrification. Although much of the heavy duty engine industry during this same period was preoccupied with expanded markets for engines in other industries, there were a few who remained dedicated to the purpose of providing engines, accessory equipment, and controls that would meet the requirements of the changing economics in domestic oil production.

Converging technologies this decade have provided alternative field development, depletion and drilling practices. These include horizontal drilling, geosteering and casing exit technologies. During the 1990"s, the benefit of horizontal drilling was becoming evident, while milling and geosteering systems were advancing. These technologies together made sidetracking a viable remedial method. Historically, sidetracking was used as a last resort to get around debris stuck in the wellbore or depart from a lower unproductive completion. The ability to drill horizontally geosteered wells from existing wellbores provided an economical means to recover a higher percentage of the hydrocarbons in place, and access nominal hydrocarbon reserves located behind the pipe, that otherwise could not have economically been recovered. As milling technologies evolved through the decade, sidetracking operations became feasible in a single trip. This paper will discuss the applications, mechanics and operation of the one trip sidetracking system.

The development of the _ inch sucker rod was necessary to satisfy a growing problem within the oil industry. This problem has been pointed up in ever increasing importance by the upward trend in lifting costs in comparison to a more or less constant or even, at times, downward trend in production profits. There are two principal divisions of cost in any analysis of lifting costs: one of these is labor; the other, of course, is material.

The salt water disposal system should be properly designed in order that maintenance costs may be kept to a minimum. Invariably, oil and gas will enter the system by malfunctioning lease equipment. Proper design of gathering lines, junctions and terminal facilities will alleviate or possibly eliminate problems caused by mixture of oil and gas in the system. Trouble-free salt water disposal systems do not "just happen"; they are properly designed and adequately maintained by experienced supervisory personnel.