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Since 1949 when the first fracturing treatment was conducted using a Naplam gel and a very small quantity of sand, significant advances have been made in the state of the art concerning fluids to be used in carrying proppants into fracture systems. Up until the late 1960's, the basic fracturing fluids went through a transition stage from the Napalm type gel to crude oils, condensates, and then to water based fluids. Eventually, the aqueous fluids were viscosified using starch, then finally to guar gum and cellulose derivatives. Viscous diesel and crude oils were also used.

Crosslinked gels are adequately stable at high fluid temperatures and have thus established their usefulness for fracturing high-temperature formations. However, in certain treatment situations, they may develop high friction pressure in tubular goods which can limit their injection rate. Furthermore, the rheological properties exhibit a time-shear history dependency that is quite difficult to predict. Two-stage gel systems have been very successful in providing a means to develop desired viscosity at downhole conditions without causing high tubular friction pressures.

The A & B zones of the Trading Bay Oil Field, Cook Inlet, Alaska are a series of heterogeneous, largely unconsolidated sandstones. These sands contain several million barrels of reserves. Although numerous attempts had been made to produce these zones since 1967, less than 1% of the oil-in-place had been produced by January, 1980. Wells which were completed in the A & B intervals typically tested at non-commercial producing rates or declined to uneconomic rates within a year. Re-perforating, acidizing and various flushes with oil, all proved unsuccessful.

The tremendous energy of a nuclear explosive and the very small size of a nuclear device warrant consideration of utilizing the energy released to stimulate production from relatively non-productive petroleum and natural-gas reservoirs, and from oil-shale and tar-sands deposits. Significant quantities of petroleum and gas are present in many thick, deeply buried reservoirs that have natural low productivity because of low permeability of the formation or high viscosity of the oil. Productivity from such formations cannot be adequately stimulated by conventional techniques of well completion.

This paper documents 8 years of performance of an improved artificial lift system installed in a secondary recovery project. This improved artificial lift system matches a Fiberglass-Sinkerbar rodstring design to a specific pumping unit installed with a Pump-off Controller. Fiberglass-Sinkerbar rodstring designs have been given little or no consideration concerning reduced downhole rod and tubing failures or power consumption costs.

Tubing leaks due to rod wear and corrosion are common in the oil field and can add significantly to the operating cost of any well. The preferred field applicable approaches to finding production tubing weak spots and leaks vary with different companies and range from pouring paint from a bucket, hydrostatic testing, and electronic inspection of the tubing as it is tripped. We have taken field data from numerous jobs and explored how each of these testing methods can be improved or enhanced to increase information reliability and to reduce the frequency and cost of well failures.

This study was performed at Mobil Salt Creek Field Unit in Kent County, TX and consisted of mechanical seal failures for Bingham split case centrifugal injection pumps. For individuals who are unfamiliar with the operation or function of mechanical seals, a reference is included in the study (see Appendix A - Fundamentals of Mechanical Seals). Due to the injection of C02, in addition to water, into the Mobil Salt Creek reservoir for increased oil production, the associated composition of the reservoir water changed greatly.

This paper describes the methods used by Southwestern Public Service Company (SPS) to optimize the use of approximately 90,000,000M ZF of natural gas and 2,000,000 tons of coal each year. The fuel that is purchased by SPS cams from five different suppliers and is covered by thirteen contracts, each contract containing one or rare take-or-pay constraints. Optimization is applied at tm levels: 1. Take-or-pay provisions of all contracts are met on monthly, annual or other basis as specified in the contracts. 2.

We have seen many changes throughout the years in the manner in which oil companies have been organized and managed. There have been the hard, tough, rough-and-tumble days of the wildcatter and the gusher, and there has been what we like to think of as the days of "enlightened" management of Wall Street and the operating management at the well head.

It would seem that before we can get into formulas and actual power calculations, it would be worth while to review a definition of electricity and study some of the instruments used to determine the quantities that are needed in power calculations.

Many of the calculations made use of in the various branches of the petroleum industry involve the pressure, temperature, and volume relationships of gases. The mathematical equations which express these relationships have been known as the gas laws.

The theory of the measurement of the flow of a liquid through an orifice is based on the two fundamental laws of hydraulics. Gas flow involves some further modifications which will be mentioned after the simpler case of liquid flow has been developed.

Many complicated explanations have been written of corrosion; yet, it is simply a transformation of energy. The corrosion process itself is quiet and unheralded, without any noticeable display of heat, light, or sound. A major portion of this cost and destruction can be stopped by applying known methods of corrosion control.

Liquid level control is critical in the separation of gas, oil and water from the well stream. This is accomplished with the use of vessels designed to hold fluid long enough for this separation to take place. The liquid level controller dictates how long these fluids will remain in the vessel. This is typically accomplished with the use of three different styles of controllers; mechanical, pneumatic, and floatless. This paper will discuss the different types of controllers, how the function, applications for each and the different valves they operate.

Liquid level control is critical in the separation of gas, oil and water from the well stream. This is accomplished with the use of vessels designed to hold fluid long enough for this separation to take place. This is typically accomplished with the use of four different styles of controllers; mechanical, pneumatic, electronic and floatless. This paper will discuss the types of controllers, how they function, application for each and the different valves they operate.

Basic theory and application of magnetic particle inspection will be presented along with the operation and techniques of electromagnetic induction inspection for field inspection of oil country tubular goods.

Crude oil as typically produced from petroleum bearing formations consists not only of oil or liquid hydrocarbons but associated with it will be hydrocarbon gas, salt water, and possibly some solids. The amount of produced water may vary from small natural occurring amounts to large amounts where water has been injected in secondary recovery operations. In some of the newer tertiary recovery systems carbon dioxide is injected into the formations to stimulate production, and therefore, some of it is returned with the oil production. It too must be processed with the crude oil stream.

Recent increases in the demand and price for natural gas have stimulated requirements for gas compressors of all sizes. This paper develops the basic fundamentals of gas compressor sizing. The scope of this discussion is limited to slow speed (300-1000 RPM), horizontal, double acting, reciprocating compressors. Since exact specifications vary between different manufacturers, it is advisable to consult the manufacturer concerning his product's performance. The data and tables shown are intended to be as universally applicable as possible.

A well analysis program is an area where any oil company can make money immediately. It appears that most well analyses are performed by large oil companies that have large computer facilities. However, in order to use these facilities, a great deal of effort is required on the part of the engineer or technician. Quite often, the engineer could make a few calculations with a small calculator and have the answer to the problem. This requires that the engineer understand the basic principles of the pump, rod string, and pumping unit operation.

Building on recent innovations and repeated successful applications using the multiple patented PAL PLUNGER casing plungers n multiple zone stripper gas wells in the Oklahoma Panhandle, the technology was successfully tested in 7 vertical wells drilled in the Barnett Shale in Coke County, Texas. Prior to the installation of casing plungers, the primary method of fluid removal employed large pump units powered with gas fired motors. The issues addressed and the solutions devised, along with the results will be presented for information and discussion.

The profitability of rod pumping operations is a direct function of the energy requirements of pumping. For maximum profits the efficiency of the pumping system must be maximized, this can only be achieved by finding the optimum pumping mode for the required liquid production rate. These principles are used in the paper by presenting a case study on improving rod pumping operations. The project reported was conducted in a mature onshore field with 70-plus rod pumped wells.

Limited field-testing of gas separators used with progressing cavity pumps have shown improved gas separation with the pump set in the producing interval. This paper is presented to illustrate these changes and their associated improvement and to exchange information with other operators. While these modifications are not fully understood or tested with a significant number of installations the improvement observed warrants discussion.

Severe production penalties often result from gas interference in the operation of pumping wells. Test results of the application of field constructed bottom hole gas separator systems have proved and re-emphasized the merit of these installations. Increased pump efficiency and increased production can be obtained through the proper use of equipment that has often been referred to as inadequate and obsolete.

In the past decade, gas control in producing oil well reservoirs with gas caps has become one of the major problems facing the oil and gas producer. This problem has gained in significance insofar as the oil producer is concerned, since Regulatory Bodies have increased their activity in curbing unnecessary wasting of reservoir energy. Evidence of this fact is shown by the downward trend in permissible gas-oil ratios for many fields in the state of Texas. The Railroad Commission of Texas, normally requires a general gas-oil survey one each year on all producing oil wells in the field.

Gas Frac is a fracturing treatment using a new and absolutely water free fluid system. The fluid is liquefied petroleum gas and liquid carbon dioxide mixed in such a ratio that they remain a liquid and behave as other liquids a long as they are under adequate pressure and below their critical temperature. After the fluid is heated to this temperature in the reservoir and pressure released, the liquid reverts to a gas. This results in extremely rapid clean-up and no residual fluids are left in the formation. Gas Frac was developed especially for gas well stimulation.