Commodities are defined relative to their application. There are dictionary definitions of the word commodity. There also are definitions of commodities related to the specific good or service that is being considered or traded on one of the many financial boards in the world. For these commodities, there is a "benchmark" that has been defined, standardized, and accepted for base price determination. However, there are multipliers that are used to differentiate the products that exceed or do not meet the benchmark requirements. This paper will discuss commodities and related benchmarks along with providing information related to the API Specification 11B and its requirements for standard sucker rods and couplings. Additionally, specific requirements in the standard are highlighted that provide quality and performance expectations but show dependency on the manufacturers" internal controls or procedures. Also discussed is that the oil and gas industry have not developed a benchmark for sucker rods and couplings (as well as many "standard" products) since each manufacture does not us
the same, standard processes and procedures. Thus, procurement/purchasing organizations should consider all the manufacturing processes and procedures to compare the equipment produced and not try to compare these products on price alone.

In the beginning we had an oil well! It was way out in the country where, at that time, therewas no paved road - only muddy roads and muddy locations or hot dusty roads and hot dustylocations. To a city dude, either was repulsive."At that time most thought that after a well was drilled and production hit the tank, that was theimportant thing and the only thing to do now wasto sell the oil. The only trouble was that all wells were not that good and some had to be pumped.Then they found that even though the oil was therein the ground it was difficult to produce enough to pay all the debts.

A new approach to pumping multiple completion oil wells with minimum surface equipment is by the use of a Siamese Dual pumping unit. Torque factor analysis, unit operation, and economic factors will be discussed.

Sidetracking systems, and more specifically whipstock technology, have evolved to the point where only one trip is required to accomplish the casing exit. However, most of these systems have been deployed in simple applications, where the formation outside the casing is relatively soft. More difficult applications, such as those where harder formations must be entered during the casing exit operation, have been bypassed, additional trips planned, or alternate cutting structures utilized to complete the operation. These contingent plans for sidetracking in harder and/or formations are often economically prohibitive in additional equipment and time. This paper will discuss the application, operation, and case histories of an alternate cutting structure used in window cutting where hard formations exist. It will also cover the economic benefit derived by using this special cutting structure opposed to past methods.

Silica fume is a pozzolanic material composed of extremely fine, amorphous spheres produced as a by-product in the manufacture of silicon metals. It has a high water demand and is more reactive than natural pozzolan or fly ash. When added to cement it makes an excellent extender and produces significant increases in compressive strengths. This paper examines the compressive strengths of low density slurries made with different blends of Portland cement, fly ash, and silica fume. Both Class C and Class H slurries, mixed at 11.5 ppg to 13.0 ppg, and cured at temperatures ranging from 80 to 170 degrees F were tested. These compressive strengths are compared with the strengths of conventional slurries extended with anhydrous sodium metasilicate or bentonite to the same density. The results show that silica fume is beneficial as a strength enhancer at low densities over a range of temperatures

The relative importance of certain data in the design of waterfloods and the effects of varying the more important factors influencing water flood recovery are discussed.

Charts are presented that simplify the design of intermittent gas lift installations for different surface control methods. These are: 1- 100% choke control at the surface. 2- Combination choke control and intermitter control at the surface. 3- 100% intermitter control at the surface.

This paper presents simplified methods of relating the following terms commonly used by the petroleum engineer in evaluating wellbore problem conditions of damage and of stimulation: 1. Well productivity 2. van Everdingen's skin factor, s 3. Permeability change-radial extent of change Mathematical relationships between these concepts were originally defined and applied by Muskat, l van Everdingen,2 Matthews and Russell," Hawkins,4 and Grubb and Martin.5 Since a well is generally considered to drain a reservoir by radial-type flow, each of the equations involve logarithms, and the usual graphical plots yield exponential-type curves which are difficult to extrapolate or to interpolate for intermediate values of interest. Straight-line forms of the three equations relating (1) well productivity, (2) van Everdingen's skin factor, s, and (3) permeability change-radial extent of change-were obtained by rearranging and regrouping of terms in the original equations. The straight-line graph of each equation is also presented in Figs. 1, 2 and 3. The practicing engineer and others interested in interpreting well production problems will find that the straight-line graphical representation is more accurately extrapolated and interpolated for intermediate values and also is considerably more easily drawn than the typical exponential curves usually given, for the relationships presented here. These should greatly assist the operations engineer in planning and designing completion, workover and stimulation procedures.

In order to select a compressor, or calculate the performance of a compressor, certain design criteria must be known. This criteria is listed below: 1. Gas analysis. A gas analysis is preferred, but if one is not available, then the specific gravity or molecular weight, n value, critical pressure and critical temperature of the gas can be used. 2. Capacity. This is generally given in either MSCFD or MMSCFD (Thousand Standard Cubic Feet Per Day or Million Standard Cubic Feet Per Day) at a given base pressure and temperature. (Example: 14.65 PSIA & 60_F). 3. Inlet temperature. At the compressor inlet. 4. Inlet pressure. At the compressor inlet. 5. Discharge pressure. At the compressor outlet. 6. Elevation. At the compressor location. Assuming values for the above design criteria, calculations can be made to either select a compressor, or calculate the performance of an existing compressor.

During the past few years a new method of checking the production of oil wells has been developed. This method is based on intermittent sampling and can be accomplished in two ways; by taking samples by hand from the bleeder at such times as are dictated by a watt demand meter, or by use of a mechanical device which will take a sample at equal intervals. In each method the production is obtained through analysis of the samples taken. Although the two methods are somewhat different, they do have this common characteristic

Texaco has been operating a CO2 flood in the Sundown Slaughter Unit in Hockley County, Texas since January of 1994.
The CO: flood was originally justified by analogy with an adjacent CO2 flood. A CO2 flood simulation was later done to predict and optimize the performance of the flood. With actual production data from the CO2 flood available, the simulation forecast was redone and updated. Specific objectives of this new, revised simulation study were to use geostatistical reservoir characterization to improve the representation of reservoir heterogeneity and to use more representative relative permeability curves and residual saturation values. A team was formed for the new simulation study which included both geologists and engineers with members both from the operating division and Texaco's research organization. Four new geostatistical reservoir models were developed, each with a
different level of effective heterogeneity. The basic idea was to adjust the reservoir characterization to improve the CO2 flood match and forecast. All the new models as well as the old model could be used to match the waterflood history equally well with moderate adjustments in the water-oil relative permeability curves. The correct level of reservoir heterogeneity was not needed to do a waterflood match. However, all the models were not equally valid in matching and predicting CO2 flood performance. The predicted CO2 flood performance was substantially different for these models and indicates that a good waterflood history match is not sufficient for a good CO2 flood prediction.
The reservoir heterogeneity in a model must be substantially correct for a successful CO2 flood match. Adjusting the gas relative permeability curve for a CO2 flood history match can compensate for moderate, but not large, errors in the reservoir heterogeneity. This paper describes the methods used for conducting the waterflood and CO2 flood history matches, for making the CO2 flood forecast, and for evaluating the different geostatistical realizations. In addition, the important sensitivities of a tertiary CO2 flood forecast to the reservoir description and the gas relative permeability are discussed and quantified.

The Pipe Inspection - Pipe Evaluation Logging System or P.I.P.E. Log is a valuable aid in determining casing deterioration due to wear and/or corrosion. The P.I.P.E. system combines a multi-finger mechanical caliper and an electromagnetic casing evaluation/caliper tool that are run simultaneously in the casing. Run in combination, the two systems complement each other in detecting single string casing corrosion.

The constant search for methods to increase the efficiency of production systems and to reduce operating costs has led to the development of a wire line tool which makes it possible to produce and control two separate reservoirs through a single string of tubing. This paper is a progress report of the experience that one company has, with this tool, gained in eight of its dually completed wells in Louisiana and Texas. Field tests have clearly demonstrated that this device can be used to maintain separation of production from two reservoirs, to control and determine the rate of production from each, and to change the rate of production as required. The advantages in simultaneous, one string multiple completions are enumerated, and various applications of the method are discussed.

Horizontal single-phase flow in a pipe network occurs frequently in oilfield operations. The field engineer may need to predict with reasonable accuracy the pressure loss in these lines. Nomographs from a handbook or appropriate equations from a fluid mechanics text can be employed for these calculations. The equations for Reynolds number and pressure loss in most textbooks will not have been derived in commonly employed field units, requiring numerous conversions which are excellent sources of error. To further complicate these calculations, Moody diagrams appear in the literature with two different sets of values for the friction factor. A calculated pressure loss would be in error by 400 per cent if the wrong friction factor were used. In this paper the equations for Reynolds number and pressure loss are defined in field units. Examples are included to illustrate the calculations. In addition, a listing of a computer program for calculation of the Darcy friction factor is given for the engineer who has access to a computer or terminal.

Since the first oil well was put on the beam, the oil industry has been confronted with the problem of trying to predetermine requirements of the surface pumping equipment. Industry engineers have struggled with this problem for years. Although numerous methods of well load calculations have been devised, the sizing of the pumping unit installation is still regarded as an "educated guess". This problem is recognized by leading men in the oil industry as one that will require much study and should not be taken lightly.

Due to the unusual nature of the loads encountered in oil well pumping service, a somewhat different approach is necessary for properly sizing pumping unit prime movers. This unusual load can sometimes be best explained by a look at the cycling torque loads imposed on a pumping unit gear reducer by the polished rod load. This can be illustrated by a dynamometer analysis of a typical well. A quick, yet reliable, method of determining horsepower requirements using only depth, pump size, SPM, and surface stroke length can be derived. When these methods are used in conjunction with knowledge of the unusual type loads encountered, an obvious advantage can be seen in selecting prime movers with operating characteristics suited to cycling loads. Utilization of heavy flywheel, single cylinder engines with the ability to deliver "instantaneous horsepower" considerably over the engine's continuous horsepower rating allows a more appropriate engine sizing for the "average" load. A similar approach can be taken in the selection of electric motors for pumping service through use of the characteristics found in the high slip design.

Matrix stimulation treatments (most commonly using acid as a solvent) are aimed at overcoming the effect of near wellbore damage by dissolving solids and, hence, increasing permeability. The skin factor, a parameter to account for altered flow conditions in the near wellbore vicinity, is often used as a quantitative indicator of the level of damage. In the absence of other effects, such as partial completion or poor perforations, a high positive skin factor indicates severe damage; a zero skin factor results for an undamaged well, and a negative skin factor is due to higher effective permeability in the near-wellbore region'. Thus, determining the evolution of the skin factor during a matrix stimulation treatment is a means of measuring the effectiveness of the acid or other solvent in overcoming formation damage. Based on the theory of pressure behavior in transient flow, the skin factor can be calculated from the bottomhole injection pressure and the injection rate during a treatment. However, the bottomhole pressure is seldom measured during an acidizing treatment and the injection rate is usually variable, complicating the determination of the skin factor. In a typical matrix stimulation treatment, only the surface pressure and injection rate are measured and multiple rate changes occur during the course of the treatment. These effects must be considered to properly calculate the evolving skin factor. We have developed a computer program, UTRTM (University of Texas Real-Time Monitoring), that calculates and displays the skin factor during a matrix stimulation treatment from the measured surface injection conditions. The program can be used in real-time to monitor the progress of a stimulation treatment or after completion of a treatment to analyze its effectiveness. We have used this program for a wide variety of acid treatments and found it to be extremely valuable. We present examples in this paper that illustrate how the skin analysis program can be used to optimize a particular treatment on the fly, to evaluate the effectiveness of acidizing methods applied in an area, and to quantify secondary effects, such as diversion.

The history and development of slim hole coupling derating factors will be presented. These date back to the 1960s when Conoco originated the first recommendations. Later these were modified to include the comparison of the strength of the couplings versus the strength of the sucker rod. Normally, while operators may not have had problems in the past with slimhole coupling failures, there is a current concern that old practices may not be the best practices for today's new producing wells that are deeper and producing higher volumes than normal wells. Additionally, new derating factors are provided if non-API higher strength, special grade rods are used. Recommendations are made as to what to do with design, installation, and selection of other potential couplings grades to prevent failures from occurring.

Harbison-Fischer has always promoted new product development through a continuous research program to provide our customers with the best technology. Part of this research interest has brought us to analyze the slippage variation between two standard pump configurations, one with a top hold down and the other with a bottom hold down. Several key variables have been involved in this theoretical analysis which will allow us to know a little more about the behavior of sucker rod pumps. Questions and discussion from the attendees will be encouraged.

The horizontal type internal combustion engine evolved very naturally within the oil industry and it is, next to the steam engine, probably the oldest type prime mover in continuous use in the field. Since the Otto, or four-stroke cycle had already been established, the early engines followed this, and from an effort to reduce weight and moving parts evolved the two-stroke cycle engine. So today we have the four-stroke cycle and the two-stroke cycle engines in general use in the oil fields.

Fluid-loss control additives for cement slurries have historically tended to undesirably retard compressive strength development at temperatures below approximately 13O'F. In order to counteract this retardation, calcium chloride set accelerator has often been added to the slurry. Unfortunately, calcium chloride adversely affects the performance of commonly used fluid-loss additives. Frequently, fluid-loss control can only be obtained by adding significantly higher concentrations of the additive. This often results in an unacceptably high slurry viscosity and cost. An ideal cement slurry for low-temperature applications should provide excellent fluid-loss control, adequate pumping time and rapid strength development. In addition, it is often desirable to use calcium chloride to economically accelerate the set of the cement, reducing the WOC (wait on cement) time. Recent studies of cementing applications at temperatures below 130_F have resulted in the development of cement slurries that provide excellent fluid-loss control, rapid strength development and are not adversely affected by the addition of calcium chloride. Excellent performance can be obtained using API Class A and C cements, as well as fly ash and bentonite containing lightweight slurries. Laboratory data comparing currently used fluid-loss additives with these newly developed slurries are presented. Case histories of wells cemented using these new slurries are also discussed.

Current increase in drilling activity of existing fields and reentry in oilfields brought on by upgrading of gas and oil pricing structures has necessitated small well-head compression. Types size limitations, configurations, design features and operations are discussed for compressors available in size ranges from 10 horsepower to 200 horsepower. Today's field design and application requirements for maximum compression flexibility and minimum compressor horsepower are discussed.

Sodium silicate has a long but somewhat overlooked history as a treatment option for conformance and remedial casing repair. Recently, there has been greater interest in the use of sodium silicate-based technology for these applications. The environmentally friendly nature of sodium silicate has been a key reason for this renewed interest. Low cost, durability and advances in silicate chemistry are the other factors driving this resurgence. Sodium silicate is a unique chemical in that it can undergo different types of chemical reactions. This paper will review silicate chemistry and the different reactions for setting sodium silicate. The HS&E characteristics will also be discussed. Case histories will be presented in the application of sodium silicate for blocking gas migration along micro annuli behind casing, isolating near wellbore annular fluid crossflows via channels, and step processes used to gain control over casing "pin-hole-leaks." Also presented will be the setting reaction between sodium silicate and carbon dioxide and how it can be used for CO2 EOR profile control and interwell communication diversion.

The innovation of using a standard 160D pump jack to lift water from a gas zone at 7450 feet by solar energy only, without storage batteries was presented at this seminar last year. The alternative power source to drive the pump jack motor was expanded to include a wind turbine to take advantage of wind power available in low sunlight conditions. The combination of two sources of clean energy power the unit to run at 6 strokes per minute at wind speeds as low as 11 mph. Sophisticated digital controllers providing power to the unit in "either/or" and "both" modes, is the key to this "one-of-kind" installation. A summary review of the installation and the performance data will be presente

By way of introduction, the availability of solar energy is discussed by considering such ideas as solar constant, sun angles. solar spectrum, and direct and diffuse components of radiation. Solar thermal conversion is discussed via consideration of flat plate und concentrating solar collectors, including geometries and test standards. Solar energy applications are reviewed giving current statusand estimated future importance of the following: heating, cooling and hot water, thermal-electric power generation, photo voltaic, power generation, thermal mechanical pumping, and process heat supply.